| Containership Property of Space Space structure: 4 dimensional (the presence of matter established time, the 4th dimension) Space Capacity: unlimited, atoms are everywhere in the Universe Boundary Condition: unbounded Internal Risk: radioactive decay External Risk: atom smasher Purpose: to make the configuration of stable compositematter possible Identity of Occupants: atoms Atoms is the name given to the numerous, smallest and stable particles of an element. An element is a substance that contains no other substance. For example, the element hydrogen contains only hydrogen atoms. The structure of an atom consists of three types of particles: neutrally charged neutrons, positvely charged protons and negatively charged electrons. The neutrons and protons make up the nucleus of the atom and its atomic mass. Atoms with different atomic masses and from the same element are Isotopes. The number of electrons is equal to the number of protons, the atomic number . In addition to its charge, an electron is characterized by its orbital (the space it occupies); the angular momentum of its orbital(the product of the size, speed and distance of the orbital from the nucleus); the orbital's magnetic properties (its behavior in a magnetic field); and the electron's spin (its direction of rotation). |
| Forces Electromagnetive force (binds electrons to atom); Strong force (binds protons to neutrons); Weak force (removes excess protons or neutrons); and Gravity. Motions The movements of electrons constitute the primary motions in the atom space. Electrons behave both as waves and as particles. This characteristic is known as the wave -particle duality of the electron. Electrons move around the nucleus in wave-like patterns. The electron orbitals of a stable atom must be at particular distances from the nucleus of the atom. At these distances, electron waves move around the nucleus at multiples of one-half their wavelengths. Groups of Similar orbitals are identified as shells. Electrons in orbitals belonging to the same shell have the same energy state. In general, shells farther away from the nucleus have higher energy states. Orbitals with the same angular momentum |
| constitute a group called subshells .
The first six subshells are s, p, d, f, g and h. Electrons jump to shells at higher energy states when they are energized (excited). When they emit the excess energy they jump back to their previous shells. Electrons also move from the outermost shell of an atom (valence shell) to the outermost shell of a neighbouring atom, in order to achieve a more stable state. Change Ionization, alpha decay and beta decay are the basic processes that change the structure of a neutrally charged atom. Ionization adds electrons to, or removes electrons from the neutral atom. The energy involved in this process is called the Ionization Energy (IE). When a neutral atom looses electrons, it is changed into a positvely charged ion because there are more protons than electrons. For example, sodium atom (Na) is changed into sodium ion (Na+) when it looses its valence electron. When a neutral atom gains electrons, it is changed into a negatively charged ion because there are more electrons than protons. For example, chlorine atom (Cl) is changed into chlorine ion (Cl-) when it gains an electron. A neutral atom can also change its structure by ejecting its protons, or neutrons. Alpha decay is the simultaneous ejection of 2 protons and 2 neutrons from the nucleus of the atom. The particle ejected is called a helium-4 nucleus or an alpha particle. In beta decay, the atom converts a proton into a |
| neutron, or a neutron into a proton. In the proton to neutron
conversion, a neutrino and a positive beta particle (positron) are emitted. In the neutron to proton conversion, an antineutrino and a negative beta particle (electron) are emitted. Interaction/Grouping Metals, semi-metals and non-metals are the basic groups of atoms. The metals group and the non-metals group contain subgroups. For example, the alkaline metals is a subgroup of the metals group and the noble gases is a subgroup of the non-metals group. In 1869, Russian chemist Dimitry Mendeleyev established the periodic table , a two dimensional arrangement of atoms in order of increasing atomic number. The standard (short-form) periodic table consists of 7 rows (periods) and 18 columns (groups). Each group consists of atoms that have the same number of valence electrons and hence similar properties. Basically, atoms interact in order to have 8 valence electrons. They loose, or gain or share electrons to realize this stable state. Their interactions produce molecules, that consists of two or more atoms that are either ionically or covalently bonded. Equilibrium The electromagnetic and strong forces keep the atom stable. Atoms are most stable when they have 8 valence electrons. Their primary interactive objective is to realize this stable state. |
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